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Lubricants and Lubrication

E-BookPDF2 - DRM Adobe / Adobe Ebook ReaderE-Book
1262 Seiten
Englisch
Wiley-VCHerschienen am10.02.20173. vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage
Praise for the previous edition:

'Contains something for everyone involved in lubricant technology' - Chemistry & Industry

This completely revised third edition incorporates the latest data available and reflects the knowledge of one of the largest companies active in the business. The authors take into account the interdisciplinary character of the field, considering aspects of engineering, materials science, chemistry, health and safety. The result is a volume providing chemists and engineers with a clear interdisciplinary introduction and guide to all major lubricant applications, focusing not only on the various products but also on specific application engineering criteria.

A classic reference work, completely revised and updated (approximately 35% new material) focusing on sustainability and the latest developments, technologies and processes of this multi billion dollar business


Provides chemists and engineers with a clear interdisciplinary introduction and guide to all major lubricant applications, looking not only at the various products but also at specific application engineering criteria


All chapters are updated in terms of environmental and operational safety. New guidelines, such as REACH, recycling alternatives and biodegradable base oils are introduced


Discusses the integration of micro- and nano-tribology and lubrication systems


Reflects the knowledge of Fuchs Petrolub SE, one of the largest companies active in the lubrication business

2 Volumes

 wileyonlinelibrary.com/ref/lubricants  


Theo Mang recently retired from his long term position at Fuchs, Germany, and is still active in the field. He obtained his diploma for mining engineering and his PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Clausthal, Germany. In 1967 he joined Fuchs in Mannheim, Germany, becoming head of the technical department in 1980 and a member of the Executive Board of the global Fuchs Group from 1983 until 2001. Professor Mang is recipient of the Georg Vogelpohl Medal, highest award of the German Society of Tribology. Furthermore, he authored more than 80 scientific publications on the topic of lubrication. In 2013, he was honored with the Federal Cross of Merit by the German Federal President Joachim Gauck for the successful research and development, his cultural activities and generally for his lifework.

Wilfried Dresel is responsible for the development of lubricating greases at Fuchs, Germany. He received his diploma in chemistry 1972 at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany, and was awarded his doctorate 1976 in carbosilane chemistry. His industrial career began 1977 in the field of preparative organic and pharmaceutical chemistry. From 1979 to 1983 he worked for a small company on lubricants for fine mechanical instruments and then went on to join Fuchs. Professor Dresel has authored 35 scientific papers and a number of contributions to books.mehr
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E-BookPDF2 - DRM Adobe / Adobe Ebook ReaderE-Book
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Produkt

KlappentextPraise for the previous edition:

'Contains something for everyone involved in lubricant technology' - Chemistry & Industry

This completely revised third edition incorporates the latest data available and reflects the knowledge of one of the largest companies active in the business. The authors take into account the interdisciplinary character of the field, considering aspects of engineering, materials science, chemistry, health and safety. The result is a volume providing chemists and engineers with a clear interdisciplinary introduction and guide to all major lubricant applications, focusing not only on the various products but also on specific application engineering criteria.

A classic reference work, completely revised and updated (approximately 35% new material) focusing on sustainability and the latest developments, technologies and processes of this multi billion dollar business


Provides chemists and engineers with a clear interdisciplinary introduction and guide to all major lubricant applications, looking not only at the various products but also at specific application engineering criteria


All chapters are updated in terms of environmental and operational safety. New guidelines, such as REACH, recycling alternatives and biodegradable base oils are introduced


Discusses the integration of micro- and nano-tribology and lubrication systems


Reflects the knowledge of Fuchs Petrolub SE, one of the largest companies active in the lubrication business

2 Volumes

 wileyonlinelibrary.com/ref/lubricants  


Theo Mang recently retired from his long term position at Fuchs, Germany, and is still active in the field. He obtained his diploma for mining engineering and his PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Clausthal, Germany. In 1967 he joined Fuchs in Mannheim, Germany, becoming head of the technical department in 1980 and a member of the Executive Board of the global Fuchs Group from 1983 until 2001. Professor Mang is recipient of the Georg Vogelpohl Medal, highest award of the German Society of Tribology. Furthermore, he authored more than 80 scientific publications on the topic of lubrication. In 2013, he was honored with the Federal Cross of Merit by the German Federal President Joachim Gauck for the successful research and development, his cultural activities and generally for his lifework.

Wilfried Dresel is responsible for the development of lubricating greases at Fuchs, Germany. He received his diploma in chemistry 1972 at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany, and was awarded his doctorate 1976 in carbosilane chemistry. His industrial career began 1977 in the field of preparative organic and pharmaceutical chemistry. From 1979 to 1983 he worked for a small company on lubricants for fine mechanical instruments and then went on to join Fuchs. Professor Dresel has authored 35 scientific papers and a number of contributions to books.
Details
Weitere ISBN/GTIN9783527645589
ProduktartE-Book
EinbandartE-Book
FormatPDF
FormatFormat mit automatischem Seitenumbruch (reflowable)
Verlag
Erscheinungsjahr2017
Erscheinungsdatum10.02.2017
Auflage3. vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage
Seiten1262 Seiten
SpracheEnglisch
Dateigrösse150884 Kbytes
Artikel-Nr.3018185
Rubriken
Genre9201

Inhalt/Kritik

Inhaltsverzeichnis
1;Lubricants and Lubrication: Third, Completely Revised and Enlarged Edition;1
2;Contents;7
3;List of Contributors;39
4;A Word of Thanks;41
5;Preface to the 3rd Edition;43
6;Abbreviations;45
7;Chapter 1: Lubricants and Their Market;49
7.1;1.1 Introduction;49
7.2;1.2 Lubricants Demand;50
7.3;1.3 Lubricants Competitor Landscape;53
7.4;1.4 Lubricant Systems;55
7.5;References;57
8;Chapter 2: Lubricants in the Tribological System;59
8.1;2.1 Lubricants as Part of Tribological Research;59
8.2;2.2 The Tribological System;60
8.3;2.3 Friction;60
8.3.1;2.3.1 Types of Friction;61
8.3.1.1;2.3.1.1 Sliding Friction;61
8.3.1.2;2.3.1.2 Rolling Friction;62
8.3.1.3;2.3.1.3 Static Friction;64
8.3.1.4;2.3.1.4 Kinetic Friction;64
8.3.1.5;2.3.1.5 Stick-Slip;64
8.3.2;2.3.2 Friction and Lubrication Conditions;65
8.3.2.1;2.3.2.1 Solid Friction (Dry Friction);65
8.3.2.2;2.3.2.2 Boundary Friction;65
8.3.2.3;2.3.2.3 Fluid Friction;65
8.3.2.4;2.3.2.4 Mixed Friction;66
8.3.2.5;2.3.2.5 Solid Lubricant Friction;66
8.3.2.6;2.3.2.6 Stribeck Diagram;67
8.3.2.7;2.3.2.7 Hydrodynamic Lubrication;67
8.3.2.8;2.3.2.8 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHD Regime);68
8.3.2.9;2.3.2.9 Thermo-Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication (TEHD);69
8.4;2.4 Wear;69
8.4.1;2.4.1 Wear Mechanisms;69
8.4.1.1;2.4.1.1 Abrasion;70
8.4.1.2;2.4.1.2 Adhesion;70
8.4.1.3;2.4.1.3 Tribochemical Reactions;71
8.4.1.4;2.4.1.4 Surface Fatigue;71
8.4.1.5;2.4.1.5 Erosion;72
8.4.1.6;2.4.1.6 Fretting;72
8.4.1.7;2.4.1.7 Cavitation;72
8.4.1.8;2.4.1.8 Corrosive Wear;72
8.4.2;2.4.2 Types of Wear;73
8.4.3;2.4.3 The Wear Process;73
8.4.4;2.4.4 Tribomutation;73
8.4.5;2.4.5 Nanotribology;75
8.4.6;2.4.6 Tribosystems of Tomorrow;77
8.5;References;77
9;Chapter 3: Rheology of Lubricants;79
9.1;3.1 Viscosity;79
9.2;3.2 Influence of Temperature on Viscosity (V-T Behaviour);81
9.2.1;3.2.1 Viscosity Index;82
9.3;3.3 Viscosity-Pressure Dependency;82
9.4;3.4 The Effect of Shear Rate on Viscosity;85
9.5;3.5 Special Rheological Effects;86
9.5.1;3.5.1 Greases;86
9.6;3.6 Viscosity Grades;87
9.6.1;3.6.1 ISO Viscosity Grades;87
9.6.2;3.6.2 Other Viscosity Grades;88
9.6.2.1;3.6.2.1 Engine Oils;88
9.6.2.2;3.6.2.2 Automotive Gear Oils;88
9.6.2.3;3.6.2.3 Industrial Gear Oils;88
9.6.2.4;3.6.2.4 Viscosity Grades for Base Oils;88
9.6.2.5;3.6.2.5 Comparison of Viscosity Grades;88
9.7;3.7 Viscosity Measurements;90
9.7.1;3.7.1 Measurement of Viscosity by Capillary Tubes;90
9.7.1.1;3.7.1.1 Newtonian Fluids;90
9.7.2;3.7.2 2 Non-Newtonian Fluids;91
9.7.2.1;3.7.2.1 Lubricating Greases Viscosity Measurements by the Standard Oil Development (SOD) Viscometer;92
9.7.3;3.7.3 High Shear Rate Capillary Viscometers;92
9.7.4;3.7.4 Rotational Viscometers;94
9.7.4.1;3.7.4.1 Coaxial Cylinder Viscometer;94
9.7.4.2;3.7.4.2 Cone/Plate Viscometer;94
9.8;3.8 Viscosity Measurements at High Pressure;95
9.9;References;97
10;Chapter 4: Base Oils;99
10.1;4.1 Base Oils: A Historical Review and Outlook;99
10.2;4.2 Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils;100
10.2.1;4.2.1 Rough Chemical Characterization;100
10.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Viscosity-Gravity Constant (VGC);100
10.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Aniline Point;100
10.2.2;4.2.2 Carbon Distribution;101
10.2.3;4.2.3 Hydrocarbon Composition;101
10.2.4;4.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatics in Base Oils;101
10.2.4.1;4.2.4.1 Aromatics in White Mineral Oils;103
10.3;4.3 Refining;103
10.3.1;4.3.1 Distillation;104
10.3.2;4.3.2 De-Asphalting;105
10.3.3;4.3.3 Traditional Refining Processes;106
10.3.3.1;4.3.3.1 Acid Refining;106
10.3.3.2;4.3.3.2 Solvent Extraction;106
10.3.4;4.3.4 Solvent Dewaxing;108
10.3.5;4.3.5 Finishing;109
10.3.5.1;4.3.5.1 Lube Crudes;110
10.4;4.4 Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking;110
10.4.1;4.4.1 Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation;111
10.4.2;4.4.2 Production of White Oils;113
10.4.3;4.4.3 Lube Hydrocracking;114
10.4.4;4.4.4 Catalytic Dewaxing;115
10.4.5;4.4.5 Wax Isomerization;118
10.4.6;4.4.6 Hybrid Lube Oil Processing;118
10.4.7;4.4.7 All-Hydrogen Route;119
10.4.8;4.4.8 Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology;120
10.5;4.5 Boiling and Evaporation Behaviour of Base Oils;121
10.6;4.6 Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils;126
10.7;References;129
11;Chapter 5: Synthetic Base Oils;131
11.1;5.1 Synthetic Hydrocarbons;132
11.1.1;5.1.1 Polyalphaolefins;133
11.1.2;5.1.2 Polyinternalolefins;135
11.1.3;5.1.3 Polybutenes;136
11.1.4;5.1.4 Alkylated Aromatics;137
11.1.5;5.1.5 Other Hydrocarbons;138
11.2;5.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons;139
11.3;5.3 Synthetic Esters;140
11.3.1;5.3.1 Esters of carboxylic acids;140
11.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 Dicarboxylic Acid Esters;141
11.3.1.2;5.3.1.2 Polyol Esters;142
11.3.1.3;5.3.1.3 Other Carboxylic Esters;143
11.3.1.4;5.3.1.4 Complex Esters, Complex Polymer Esters;144
11.3.1.5;5.3.1.5 Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters;145
11.3.2;5.3.2 Phosphate Esters;145
11.4;5.4 Polyalkylene Glycols;146
11.5;5.5 Other Polyethers;148
11.5.1;5.5.1 Perfluorinated Polyethers;149
11.5.2;5.5.2 Polyphenyl Ethers;150
11.5.3;5.5.3 Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils, Silicones);151
11.6;5.6 Other Synthetic Base Oils;153
11.7;5.7 Comparison of Synthetic Base Oils;157
11.8;5.8 Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants;157
11.9;References;158
12;Chapter 6: Additives;165
12.1;6.1 Antioxidants;166
12.1.1;6.1.1 Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants;166
12.1.2;6.1.2 Compounds;168
12.1.2.1;6.1.2.1 Phenolic Antioxidants;168
12.1.2.2;6.1.2.2 Aromatic Amines;169
12.1.2.3;6.1.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus;170
12.1.2.4;6.1.2.4 Organosulfur Compounds;171
12.1.2.5;6.1.2.5 Organophosphorus Compounds;171
12.1.2.6;6.1.2.6 Other Compounds;171
12.1.2.7;6.1.2.7 Synergistic Mixtures;171
12.1.3;6.1.3 Testing of the Oxidation Stability;171
12.2;6.2 Viscosity Modifiers;172
12.2.1;6.2.1 Physical Description of Viscosity Index;172
12.2.2;6.2.2 VI Improvement Mechanisms;173
12.2.3;6.2.3 Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers;175
12.3;6.3 Pour Point Depressants (PPD);177
12.4;6.4 Detergents and Dispersants;178
12.4.1;6.4.1 Mechanism of DD Additives;178
12.4.2;6.4.2 Metal-Containing Compounds (Detergents);179
12.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 Phenates;179
12.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 Salicylates;179
12.4.2.3;6.4.2.3 Thiophosphonates;180
12.4.2.4;6.4.2.4 Sulfonates;181
12.4.3;6.4.3 Ashless Dispersants (AD);182
12.5;6.5 Antifoam Agents;184
12.5.1;6.5.1 Silicon Defoamers;184
12.5.2;6.5.2 Silicone-Free Defoamers;185
12.6;6.6 Demulsifiers and Emulsifiers;185
12.6.1;6.6.1 Demulsifiers;185
12.6.2;6.6.2 Emulsifiers;186
12.7;6.7 Dyes;186
12.8;6.8 Antiwear (AW) and Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives;186
12.8.1;6.8.1 Function of AW/EP Additives;186
12.8.2;6.8.2 Compounds;187
12.8.2.1;6.8.2.1 Phosphorus Compounds;187
12.8.2.2;6.8.2.2 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus;188
12.8.2.3;6.8.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Nitrogen;189
12.8.2.4;6.8.2.4 Sulfur Compounds;190
12.8.2.5;6.8.2.5 PEP Additives;192
12.8.2.6;6.8.2.6 Chlorine Compounds;192
12.8.2.7;6.8.2.7 Solid Lubricating Compounds;192
12.9;6.9 Friction Modifiers (FM);192
12.10;6.10 Corrosion Inhibitors;193
12.10.1;6.10.1 Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors;194
12.10.2;6.10.2 Antirust Additives (Ferrous Metals);194
12.10.2.1;6.10.2.1 Sulfonates;194
12.10.2.2;6.10.2.2 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives;195
12.10.2.3;6.10.2.3 Amine-Neutralized Alkylphosphoric Acid Partial Esters;196
12.10.2.4;6.10.2.4 Vapour Phase Corrosion Inhibitors;196
12.10.3;6.10.3 Metal Passivators (Non-Ferrous Metals);197
12.11;References;199
13;Chapter 7: Lubricants in the Environment;201
13.1;7.1 Definition of `Environment-Compatible Lubricants´;201
13.1.1;7.1.1 CEN Technical Report 16227 - Standard Designation of the Term Biolubricant;203
13.2;7.2 Current Situation;204
13.2.1;7.2.1 Statistical Data;204
13.2.2;7.2.2 Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential;206
13.2.3;7.2.3 Agriculture, Economy and Politics;208
13.2.4;7.2.4 Political Initiatives;209
13.3;7.3 Tests to Evaluate Biotic Potential;210
13.3.1;7.3.1 Biodegradation;211
13.3.2;7.3.2 Ecotoxicity;211
13.3.3;7.3.3 Emission Thresholds;212
13.3.4;7.3.4 Water Pollution;212
13.3.4.1;7.3.4.1 The German Water Hazardous Classes;212
13.3.4.2;7.3.4.2 German Regulations for Using Water-Endangering Lubricants (VAwS);214
13.4;7.4 Environmental Legislation 1: Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACh);217
13.4.1;7.4.1 Registration;218
13.4.2;7.4.2 Evaluation;220
13.4.3;7.4.3 Authorization;220
13.4.4;7.4.4 Registration Obligations;221
13.5;7.5 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling (GHS);223
13.6;7.6 Environmental Legislation 2: Classification and Labelling of Chemicals;225
13.6.1;7.6.1 Dangerous Preparations Directive (1999/45/EC);225
13.6.2;7.6.2 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS);227
13.7;7.7 Environmental Legislation 3: Regular use;228
13.7.1;7.7.1 Environmental Liability Law;229
13.7.2;7.7.2 The Chemicals Law, Hazardous Substances Law;229
13.7.3;7.7.3 Transport Regulations;230
13.7.4;7.7.4 Disposal (Waste and Recycling Laws);230
13.7.5;7.7.5 Disposal Options for `Not Water Pollutant' Vegetable Oils;231
13.8;7.8 Environmental Legislation 4: Emissions;232
13.8.1;7.8.1 Air Pollution;232
13.8.2;7.8.2 Water Pollution;232
13.8.3;7.8.3 German Law for Soil Protection;233
13.8.4;7.8.4 German Water Law;234
13.8.5;7.8.5 Wastewater Charges;235
13.8.6;7.8.6 Clean Air: German Emissions Law;235
13.8.7;7.8.7 Drinking Water Directive;235
13.9;7.9 Standardization of Environment-Compatible Hydraulic Fluids;236
13.9.1;7.9.1 The German Regulation VDMA 24568;236
13.9.2;7.9.2 ISO Regulation 15380;236
13.10;7.10 Environmental Seal;242
13.10.1;7.10.1 Global Eco-Labelling Network;242
13.10.2;7.10.2 European Eco-Label for Lubricants (EEL);243
13.10.3;7.10.3 The German `Blue Angel';248
13.10.4;7.10.4 Nordic Ecolabel (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland): `White Swan';252
13.10.4.1;7.10.4.1 Requirements Concerning Renewable Resources;253
13.10.4.2;7.10.4.2 Requirements Concerning Re-Refined Oil;254
13.10.4.3;7.10.4.3 Requirements Concerning Environmentally Harmful Components;254
13.10.4.4;7.10.4.4 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids, Mould Oil, Metalworking Fluids;254
13.10.5;7.10.5 Sweden Standard;254
13.10.6;7.10.6 The Canadian `Environmental Choice' (Maple Leaf);256
13.10.7;7.10.7 Other Eco-Labels;257
13.10.7.1;7.10.7.1 Austria;257
13.10.7.2;7.10.7.2 France;258
13.10.7.3;7.10.7.3 Japan;258
13.10.7.4;7.10.7.4 USA;259
13.10.7.5;7.10.7.5 The Netherlands;259
13.10.7.6;7.10.7.6 US-Regulation VGP and Definition of Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants (EAL);260
13.11;7.11 Base Fluids;262
13.11.1;7.11.1 Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants;262
13.11.2;7.11.2 Synthetic Esters;262
13.11.3;7.11.3 Polyglycols;263
13.11.4;7.11.4 Polyalphaolefins;263
13.11.5;7.11.5 Relevant Properties of Ester Oils;263
13.11.5.1;7.11.5.1 Evaporation Loss;263
13.11.5.2;7.11.5.2 Viscosity-Temperature Behaviour;264
13.11.5.3;7.11.5.3 Boundary Lubrication;264
13.12;7.12 Additives;264
13.12.1;7.12.1 Extreme Pressure/Antiwear Additives;265
13.12.2;7.12.2 Corrosion Protection;265
13.12.3;7.12.3 Antioxidants;265
13.13;7.13 Products (Examples);266
13.13.1;7.13.1 Hydraulic Fluids;266
13.13.2;7.13.2 Metal Working Oil;266
13.13.3;7.13.3 Oil-Refreshing System;267
13.14;7.14 Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials);268
13.14.1;7.14.1 Toxicological Terminology and Hazard Indicators;268
13.14.1.1;7.14.1.1 Acute Toxicity;268
13.14.1.2;7.14.1.2 Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity;269
13.14.1.3;7.14.1.3 Poison Categories;269
13.14.1.4;7.14.1.4 Corrosive and Caustic;269
13.14.1.5;7.14.1.5 Explosion and Flammability;269
13.14.1.6;7.14.1.6 Carcinogenic;270
13.14.1.7;7.14.1.7 Teratogens and Mutagens;270
13.14.2;7.14.2 MAK (Maximum Workplace Concentration) Values;270
13.14.3;7.14.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA);271
13.14.4;7.14.4 Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids;272
13.14.5;7.14.5 Law on Flammable Fluids;273
13.15;7.15 Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants;273
13.15.1;7.15.1 Structure and Function of the Skin;273
13.15.2;7.15.2 Skin Damage;274
13.15.2.1;7.15.2.1 Oil Acne (Particle Acne);274
13.15.2.2;7.15.2.2 Oil Eczema;275
13.15.3;7.15.3 Testing Skin Compatibility;276
13.15.4;7.15.4 Skin Function Tests;278
13.15.5;7.15.5 Skin Care and Skin Protection;279
13.16;Further Reading;280
14;Chapter 8: Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils;285
14.1;8.1 Possible Uses of Waste Oil;285
14.2;8.2 Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning;287
14.3;8.3 Re-Refining;288
14.3.1;8.3.1 Sulfuric Acid Refining (Meinken);289
14.3.2;8.3.2 Propane Extraction Process (IFP, Snamprogetti);289
14.3.3;8.3.3 Mohawk Technology (CEP-Mohawk);291
14.3.4;8.3.4 KTI Process;291
14.3.5;8.3.5 PROP Process;291
14.3.6;8.3.6 Safety Kleen Process;292
14.3.7;8.3.7 DEA Technology;293
14.3.8;8.3.8 Other Re-Refining Technologies;293
14.4;References;294
15;Chapter 9: Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines;297
15.1;9.1 Four-Stroke Engine Oils;297
15.1.1;9.1.1 General Overview;297
15.1.1.1;9.1.1.1 Fundamental Principles;298
15.1.1.2;9.1.1.2 Viscosity Grades;299
15.1.1.3;9.1.1.3 Performance Specifications;301
15.1.1.4;9.1.1.4 Formulation of Engine Oils;302
15.1.1.5;9.1.1.5 Additives;303
15.1.1.6;9.1.1.6 Performance Additives;303
15.1.1.7;9.1.1.7 Viscosity Improvers;304
15.1.2;9.1.2 Characterization and Testing;304
15.1.2.1;9.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Testing;304
15.1.2.2;9.1.2.2 Engine Testing;305
15.1.2.3;9.1.2.3 Passenger Car Engine Oils;305
15.1.2.4;9.1.2.4 Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles;309
15.1.3;9.1.3 Classification by Specification;310
15.1.3.1;9.1.3.1 MIL Specifications;310
15.1.3.2;9.1.3.2 API and ILSAC Classification;310
15.1.3.3;9.1.3.3 CCMC Specifications;313
15.1.3.4;9.1.3.4 ACEA Specifications;314
15.1.3.5;9.1.3.5 Manufacturers' Approval of Service Engine Oils;316
15.1.3.6;9.1.3.6 Future Trends;320
15.1.3.7;9.1.3.7 Fuel Efficiency;322
15.1.3.8;9.1.3.8 Long Drain Intervals;324
15.1.3.9;9.1.3.9 Low Emission;325
15.2;9.2 Two-Stroke Oils;326
15.2.1;9.2.1 Application and Characteristics of Two-stroke Oils [35-37];326
15.2.2;9.2.2 Classification of Two-stroke Oils;328
15.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 API Service Groups;328
15.2.2.2;9.2.2.2 JASO Classification;328
15.2.2.3;9.2.2.3 ISO Classification;329
15.2.3;9.2.3 Oils for Two-Stroke Outboard Engines;330
15.2.4;9.2.4 Environmentally Friendly Two-stroke Oils [40];331
15.3;9.3 Tractor Oils;331
15.4;9.4 Gas Engine Oils [41-43];333
15.4.1;9.4.1 Use of Gas Engines: Gas as a Fuel;334
15.4.2;9.4.2 Lubricants for Gas Engines;334
15.5;9.5 Marine Diesel Engine Oils [44];335
15.5.1;9.5.1 Low-speed Crosshead Engines;336
15.5.2;9.5.2 Medium-Speed Engines;336
15.5.3;9.5.3 Lubricants;336
15.6;References;338
16;Chapter 10: Gear Lubrication Oils;341
16.1;10.1 Requirements of Gear Lubrication Oils;342
16.2;10.2 Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles;345
16.2.1;10.2.1 Driveline Lubricants for Commercial Vehicles;346
16.2.2;10.2.2 Driveline Lubricants for Passenger Cars;350
16.2.3;10.2.3 Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs;354
16.2.3.1;10.2.3.1 Fluid Requirements for Hydrodynamic Transmissions;356
16.2.3.2;10.2.3.2 Fluid Requirements for Wet Clutches and Brakes;357
16.2.3.3;10.2.3.3 Fluid Requirements for CVT Applications;359
16.2.3.4;10.2.3.4 B-CVT Push Belt and Link Chain Drives;360
16.2.3.5;10.2.3.5 T-CVT Traction Drives;361
16.2.3.6;10.2.3.6 H-CVT Hydrostatic Dynamic Powershift Drives;362
16.2.4;10.2.4 Multifunctional Fluids in Vehicle Gears;363
16.3;10.3 Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears;364
16.3.1;10.3.1 Introduction;364
16.3.2;10.3.2 Industrial Lubricants: Industrial Gear Oils - Statistics;367
16.3.2.1;10.3.2.1 Market Shares/Market Situation;367
16.3.3;10.3.3 Composition of Industrial Gear Oils;368
16.3.3.1;10.3.3.1 Mineral Oils (CLP-M);369
16.3.3.2;10.3.3.2 Synthetic Hydrocarbons: Polyalphaolefins (CLP-PAO);369
16.3.3.3;10.3.3.3 Polyglycols (CLP-PG);370
16.3.3.4;10.3.3.4 Synthetic Esters (CLP-E);372
16.3.3.5;10.3.3.5 Gear Oil Additives;372
16.3.4;10.3.4 Classification of Gear Oils;374
16.3.4.1;10.3.4.1 Requirements and Specifications;374
16.3.4.2;10.3.4.2 Requirements for Industrial Gear Oils According to DIN 51517, Part 3;374
16.3.5;10.3.5 Temperature Ranges and Lifetime of Industrial Gear Oils;376
16.3.5.1;10.3.5.1 Lifetime of Gear Oils: Oxidation Stability (RPVOT Test);376
16.3.6;10.3.6 Cost-Benefit Ratio of Industrial Gear Oils;378
16.3.7;10.3.7 Filtration Behaviour: Electrical Conductivity of Gear and Lubricating Oils;378
16.3.8;10.3.8 Oil and Water: Saturation Values of Dissolved Water in Oil;379
16.3.9;10.3.9 Special Industrial Gear oil Formulations;381
16.3.9.1;10.3.9.1 Special Corrosion Protection Gear Oils;381
16.3.9.2;10.3.9.2 Detergent/Dispersant Types of Gear Oils;381
16.3.9.3;10.3.9.3 `Plastic Deformation´ Additive Technology;381
16.3.9.4;10.3.9.4 `Reducing Friction´ by Special Industrial Gear Oils;381
16.3.10;10.3.10 Gear Oils for Wind Turbines: Demands and Characteristics;382
16.3.10.1;10.3.10.1 Demands on Wind Turbine Gear Oils;382
16.3.10.2;10.3.10.2 Special Tests for Wind Turbine Gear Oils;386
16.3.10.3;10.3.10.3 SKF Specifications for Wind Turbine Gear Oils;387
16.3.10.4;10.3.10.4 Low-Speed Wear Behaviour of Industrial Gear Oils;387
16.3.10.5;10.3.10.5 Low-Temperature Viscosity of Industrial Gear Oils;387
16.3.10.6;10.3.10.6 Conclusion;390
16.3.11;10.3.11 Summary;391
16.4;References;391
17;Chapter 11: Hydraulic Oils;393
17.1;11.1 Introduction;393
17.2;11.2 Hydraulic Principle: Pascal's Law;394
17.3;11.3 Hydraulic Systems, Circuits and Components;395
17.3.1;11.3.1 Elements of a Hydraulic System;395
17.3.1.1;11.3.1.1 Pumps and Motors;396
17.3.1.2;11.3.1.2 Hydraulic Cylinders;396
17.3.1.3;11.3.1.3 Valves;398
17.3.1.4;11.3.1.4 Circuit Components;398
17.3.1.5;11.3.1.5 Seals, Gaskets and Elastomers;398
17.4;11.4 Hydraulic Fluids;401
17.4.1;11.4.1 Composition of Hydraulic Fluids: Base Fluids and Additives;401
17.4.1.1;11.4.1.1 Base Oil or Base Fluid;401
17.4.1.2;11.4.1.2 Hydraulic Fluid Additives;401
17.4.2;11.4.2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Characteristics of a Hydraulic Fluid;402
17.4.3;11.4.3 Selection Criteria for Hydraulic Fluids;403
17.4.4;11.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids: Standardization of Hydraulic Fluids;405
17.4.4.1;11.4.4.1 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids;405
17.4.5;11.4.5 Mineral-Oil-Based Hydraulic Fluids;405
17.4.5.1;11.4.5.1 H Hydraulic Oils;408
17.4.5.2;11.4.5.2 HL Hydraulic Oils;408
17.4.5.3;11.4.5.3 HLP Hydraulic Oils;408
17.4.5.4;11.4.5.4 HVLP Hydraulic Oils;408
17.4.5.5;11.4.5.5 HLPD Hydraulic Oils;418
17.4.6;11.4.6 Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids;418
17.4.6.1;11.4.6.1 HFA Fluids;419
17.4.6.2;11.4.6.2 HFB Fluids;419
17.4.6.3;11.4.6.3 HFC Fluids;419
17.4.6.4;11.4.6.4 HFD Fluids;420
17.4.7;11.4.7 Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids;420
17.4.7.1;11.4.7.1 HETG: Triglyceride and Vegetable-Oil Types;421
17.4.7.2;11.4.7.2 HEES: Synthetic Ester Types;421
17.4.7.3;11.4.7.3 HEPG: Polyglycol Types;423
17.4.7.4;11.4.7.4 HEPR: Polyalphaolefin and Related Hydrocarbon Products;426
17.4.8;11.4.8 Hydraulic Fluids for the Food and Beverage Industry;426
17.4.8.1;11.4.8.1 H2 Lubricants;426
17.4.8.2;11.4.8.2 H1 Lubricants;426
17.4.9;11.4.9 Automatic Transmission Fluids;427
17.4.10;11.4.10 Fluids in Tractors and Agricultural Machinery;427
17.4.11;11.4.11 Hydraulic Fluids for Aircraft;427
17.4.12;11.4.12 International Requirements on Hydraulic Oils;428
17.4.13;11.4.13 Physical Properties of Hydraulic Oils and Their Effect on Performance;428
17.4.13.1;11.4.13.1 Viscosity and Viscosity-Temperature Behaviour;428
17.4.13.2;11.4.13.2 Viscosity-Pressure Behaviour;431
17.4.13.3;11.4.13.3 Density;432
17.4.13.4;11.4.13.4 Compressibility;436
17.4.13.5;11.4.13.5 Gas Solubility and Cavitation;437
17.4.13.6;11.4.13.6 Air Release;438
17.4.13.7;11.4.13.7 Foaming;439
17.4.13.8;11.4.13.8 Demulsification;439
17.4.13.9;11.4.13.9 Pour Point;440
17.4.13.10;11.4.13.10 Copper Corrosion Behaviour: Copper Strip Test;440
17.4.13.11;11.4.13.11 Water Content: Karl Fischer Method;440
17.4.13.12;11.4.13.12 Ageing Stability: Baader Method;441
17.4.13.13;11.4.13.13 Ageing Stability (TOST Test);441
17.4.13.14;11.4.13.14 Neutralization Number;441
17.4.13.15;11.4.13.15 Steel/Ferrous Corrosion Protection Properties;442
17.4.13.16;11.4.13.16 Wear Protection (Shell Four-Ball Apparatus; VKA, DIN 51 350);442
17.4.13.17;11.4.13.17 Shear Stability of Polymer-Containing Lubricants;442
17.4.13.18;11.4.13.18 Mechanical Testing of Hydraulic Fluids in Rotary Vane Pumps (DIN EN ISO 20763 [Q]);443
17.4.13.19;11.4.13.19 Wear Protection (FZG Gear Rig Test; DIN ISO 14635-1 [R]);443
17.5;11.5 Hydraulic System Filters;443
17.5.1;11.5.1 Contaminants in Hydraulic Fluids;444
17.5.2;11.5.2 Oil Cleanliness Grades;445
17.5.3;11.5.3 Filtration;446
17.5.4;11.5.4 Requirements of Hydraulic Fluids;448
17.6;11.6 Machine Tool Lubrication;448
17.6.1;11.6.1 The Role of Machine Tools;448
17.6.2;11.6.2 Machine Tool Lubrication;449
17.6.3;11.6.3 Machine Tool Components: Lubricants;450
17.6.3.1;11.6.3.1 Hydraulic Unit;450
17.6.3.2;11.6.3.2 Slideways;452
17.6.3.3;11.6.3.3 Spindles: Main and Working Spindles;453
17.6.3.4;11.6.3.4 Gearboxes and Bearings;454
17.6.4;11.6.4 Machine Tool Lubrication Problems;454
17.6.5;11.6.5 Hydraulic Fluids: New Trends and New Developments;455
17.6.5.1;11.6.5.1 Applications;455
17.6.5.2;11.6.5.2 Chemistry;455
17.6.5.3;11.6.5.3 Extreme Pressure and Anti-Wear Properties;456
17.6.5.4;11.6.5.4 Detergent/Dispersant Properties;457
17.6.5.5;11.6.5.5 Air Release;457
17.6.5.6;11.6.5.6 Static Coefficient of Friction;458
17.6.5.7;11.6.5.7 Oxidation Stability;458
17.6.5.8;11.6.5.8 Shear Stability;458
17.6.5.9;11.6.5.9 Filtration of Zn- and Ash-Free Hydraulic Fluids;459
17.6.5.10;11.6.5.10 Electrostatic Charges;460
17.6.5.11;11.6.5.11 Micro-Scratching;461
17.6.5.12;11.6.5.12 Updated Standards;461
17.6.5.13;11.6.5.13 Conclusion;464
17.7;11.7 Summary;464
17.8;References;464
17.9;Further Reading;467
17.10;Books;467
17.11;Standards;467
18;Chapter 12: Compressor Oils;469
18.1;12.1 Air Compressor Oils;469
18.1.1;12.1.1 Displacement Compressors;471
18.1.1.1;12.1.1.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressors;471
18.1.1.2;12.1.1.2 Lubrication of Reciprocating Piston Compressors;471
18.1.1.3;12.1.1.3 Rotary Piston Compressors: Single Shaft, Rotary Vane Compressors;472
18.1.1.4;12.1.1.4 Lubrication of Rotary Piston Compressors;472
18.1.1.5;12.1.1.5 Screw Compressors;472
18.1.1.6;12.1.1.6 Lubrication of Screw Compressors;473
18.1.1.7;12.1.1.7 Roots Compressors;474
18.1.1.8;12.1.1.8 Lubrication of Roots Compressors;474
18.1.2;12.1.2 Dynamic Compressors;474
18.1.2.1;12.1.2.1 Turbo Compressors;474
18.1.2.2;12.1.2.2 Lubrication of Turbo Compressors;475
18.1.2.3;12.1.2.3 Preparation of Compressed Air;475
18.1.2.4;12.1.2.4 Lubrication of Gas Compressors;475
18.1.2.5;12.1.2.5 Characteristics of Compressor Oils;476
18.1.2.6;12.1.2.6 Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils;477
18.2;12.2 Refrigeration Oils;484
18.2.1;12.2.1 Introduction;484
18.2.2;12.2.2 Minimum Requirements of Refrigeration Oils;484
18.2.3;12.2.3 Classifications of Refrigeration Oils;486
18.2.3.1;12.2.3.1 Mineral Oils (MO) - Dewaxed Naphthenic Refrigeration Oils;486
18.2.3.2;12.2.3.2 Mineral Oils (MO) - Paraffinic Refrigeration Oils;487
18.2.3.3;12.2.3.3 Semi-synthetic Refrigeration Oils: Mixtures of Alkylbenzenes (AB) and Mineral Oils (MO);488
18.2.3.4;12.2.3.4 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils: Alkylbenzenes;488
18.2.3.5;12.2.3.5 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils: Polyalphaolefins (PAO);488
18.2.3.6;12.2.3.6 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils: Polyol Esters (POE);489
18.2.3.7;12.2.3.7 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils: Polyalkylene Glycols (PAG) for R134a and HFO-1234 yf;490
18.2.3.8;12.2.3.8 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils - Polyalkylene glycols for NH3;490
18.2.3.9;12.2.3.9 Other Synthetic Fluids;491
18.2.3.10;12.2.3.10 Refrigeration Oils for CO2;491
18.2.3.11;12.2.3.11 New Refrigeration Oils for HFO Refrigerants;491
18.2.3.12;12.2.3.12 Copper Plating;492
18.2.4;12.2.4 Types of Compressor;492
18.2.5;12.2.5 Viscosity Selection;493
18.2.5.1;12.2.5.1 General Overview;493
18.2.5.2;12.2.5.2 Mixture Concentration in Relation to Temperature and Pressure (RENISO Triton SE 55 - R134a);495
18.2.5.3;12.2.5.3 Mixture Viscosity in Relation to Temperature, Pressure and Refrigerant Concentration (RENISO Triton SE 55 - R134a);495
18.2.6;12.2.6 Summary;498
18.3;References;498
19;Chapter 13: Turbine Oils;501
19.1;13.1 Introduction;501
19.2;13.2 Demands on Turbine Oils - Characteristics;502
19.3;13.3 Formulation of Turbine Oils;502
19.4;13.4 Physical and Chemical Data of Turbine Oils;503
19.4.1;13.4.1 Colour According to DIN ISO 2049;503
19.4.2;13.4.2 Density According to DIN 51757;503
19.4.3;13.4.3 Kinematic Viscosity According to DIN EN ISO 3104;504
19.4.4;13.4.4 Flashpoint According to DIN ISO 2592;505
19.4.5;13.4.5 Pourpoint According to DIN ISO 3016;506
19.4.6;13.4.6 Foaming According to ASTM D 892;506
19.4.7;13.4.7 Neutralization Number According to DIN 51558;507
19.4.8;13.4.8 FZG Mechanical Gear Test Rig According to DIN ISO 14635-1;508
19.4.9;13.4.9 Air Release at 50?°C According to DIN ISO 9120;510
19.4.10;13.4.10 Water Content According to DIN 51777;510
19.4.11;13.4.11 Water Separation According to DIN 51589;511
19.4.12;13.4.12 Demulsifying Power at 54°C According to DIN ISO 6614;512
19.4.13;13.4.13 Steel/Ferrous Corrosion Protection Properties According to DIN ISO 7120;512
19.4.14;13.4.14 Copper Corrosion Protection Properties According to DIN EN ISO 2160;513
19.4.15;13.4.15 RPVOT 150 °C According to ASTM D2272;513
19.4.16;13.4.16 TOST Lifetime According to DIN EN ISO 4263-1;514
19.4.17;13.4.17 Thermal Stability;515
19.4.18;13.4.18 Thermal Conductivity;516
19.4.19;13.4.19 Specific Heat;516
19.4.20;13.4.20 Vapour Pressure;517
19.4.21;13.4.21 Surface Tension;518
19.4.22;13.4.22 Remaining Useful Life Evaluation Routine (RULER Method);518
19.4.23;13.4.23 Membrane Patch Colorimetry (MPC) Test;520
19.5;13.5 Turbine Lubricants: Description According to DIN 51515, Parts 1 and 2 [11];521
19.6;13.6 Turbine Lubricants: Specifications;522
19.6.1;13.6.1 Lubricants for Turbines: ISO 8068 Specifications;525
19.7;13.7 Turbine Oil Circuits;527
19.8;13.8 Flushing Turbine Oil Circuits;528
19.9;13.9 Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils - General;529
19.10;13.10 Turbine Oils: Evaluation of Used Oil Values - Parameters and Warning Values/Limits According to VGB Recommendation [13];529
19.11;13.11 Turbine Oils: Evaluation of Used Oil Values - Causes and Measures [13];530
19.11.1;13.11.1 Turbine Oils: Used Oil Values;531
19.11.2;13.11.2 Turbine Oils: Used Oil Values - Causes and Measures [13];532
19.11.3;13.11.3 Turbine Oils: Used Oil Values - Causes and Measures [13];533
19.12;13.12 Lifetime of (Steam) Turbine Oils;533
19.13;13.13 Gas Turbine Oils: Application and Requirements;534
19.14;13.14 Fire-Resistant, Water-Free Fluids for Power Station Applications;535
19.15;13.15 Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants;536
19.16;References;537
20;Chapter 14: Metalworking Fluids;539
20.1;14.1 Action Mechanism and Cutting Fluid Selection;540
20.1.1;14.1.1 Lubrication;541
20.1.2;14.1.2 Cooling;542
20.1.3;14.1.3 Significance of Cutting Fluid with Various Cutting Materials;544
20.1.3.1;14.1.3.1 High-Speed Steels;545
20.1.3.2;14.1.3.2 Cemented Carbide Metals;545
20.1.3.3;14.1.3.3 Coated Carbide Metals;545
20.1.3.4;14.1.3.4 Ceramic Materials;546
20.1.3.5;14.1.3.5 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN);546
20.1.3.6;14.1.3.6 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD);546
20.1.3.7;14.1.3.7 Coatings;546
20.1.4;14.1.4 Cutting Fluid Selection for Various Cutting Methods and Cutting Conditions;547
20.2;14.2 Friction and Wear Assessment Method for the Use of Cutting Fluids;549
20.2.1;14.2.1 Tool Life and Number of Parts Produced by the Tool as Practical Assessment Parameters;550
20.2.2;14.2.2 Measuring Cutting Forces in Screening Tests;550
20.2.3;14.2.3 Feed Rates at Constant Feed Force;551
20.2.4;14.2.4 Measuring Tool Life by Fast-Screening Methods;551
20.2.5;14.2.5 Cutting Geometry and Chip Flow;552
20.2.6;14.2.6 Other Fast Testing Methods;552
20.2.6.1;14.2.6.1 Temperature Measurement;552
20.2.6.2;14.2.6.2 Radioactive Tools;552
20.2.6.3;14.2.6.3 Surface Finish;553
20.3;14.3 Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids;553
20.3.1;14.3.1 Nomenclature and Breakdown;554
20.3.2;14.3.2 Composition;555
20.3.2.1;14.3.2.1 Emulsifiers;556
20.3.2.2;14.3.2.2 Viscosity of Emulsions;562
20.3.2.3;14.3.2.3 Phase Reversal, Determination of the Type of Emulsion;562
20.3.2.4;14.3.2.4 Degree of Dispersion;564
20.3.2.5;14.3.2.5 Stability;565
20.3.2.6;14.3.2.6 Corrosion Inhibitors and Other Additives;567
20.3.2.7;14.3.2.7 Cutting Fluids Containing Emulsifiers;569
20.3.2.8;14.3.2.8 Coolants Containing Polyglycols;571
20.3.2.9;14.3.2.9 Salt Solutions;571
20.3.3;14.3.3 Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods;571
20.3.4;14.3.4 Concentration of Water-Mixed Cutting Fluids;572
20.3.4.1;14.3.4.1 Determination of Concentration by DIN 51 368 (IP 137);573
20.3.4.2;14.3.4.2 Concentration Measurement Using Hand-Held Refractometers;574
20.3.4.3;14.3.4.3 Concentration Measurement Through Individual Components;574
20.3.4.4;14.3.4.4 Determination of Concentration by Titration of Anionic Components;574
20.3.4.5;14.3.4.5 Determination of Concentration Through Alkali Reserve;575
20.3.4.6;14.3.4.6 Concentration After Centrifuging;575
20.3.5;14.3.5 Stability of Coolants;575
20.3.5.1;14.3.5.1 Determination of Physical Emulsion Stability;575
20.3.5.2;14.3.5.2 Electrolyte Stability;576
20.3.5.3;14.3.5.3 Thermal Stability;577
20.3.5.4;14.3.5.4 Stability to Metal Chips;578
20.3.6;14.3.6 Foaming Properties;579
20.3.6.1;14.3.6.1 Definition and Origin of Foam;579
20.3.6.2;14.3.6.2 Foam Prevention;579
20.3.6.3;14.3.6.3 Methods of Determining Foam Behaviour;581
20.3.7;14.3.7 Metalworking Fluid Microbiology;582
20.3.7.1;14.3.7.1 Hygienic and Toxicological Aspects of Microorganisms;583
20.3.7.2;14.3.7.2 Methods of Determining Microbial Count;584
20.3.7.3;14.3.7.3 Determination of the Resistance of Water-Miscible Coolants Towards Microorganisms;585
20.3.7.4;14.3.7.4 Reducing or Avoiding Microbial Growth in Coolants;585
20.3.8;14.3.8 Preservation of Coolants with Biocides;587
20.3.8.1;14.3.8.1 Aldehydes;589
20.3.8.2;14.3.8.2 Formaldehyde Release Compounds;589
20.3.8.3;14.3.8.3 Phenol Derivatives;591
20.3.8.4;14.3.8.4 Compounds Derived from Carbon Disulfide;591
20.3.8.5;14.3.8.5 Isothiazoles;592
20.3.8.6;14.3.8.6 Fungicides;592
20.3.8.7;14.3.8.7 Hypochlorites;592
20.3.8.8;14.3.8.8 Hydrogen Peroxide, H2O2;592
20.3.8.9;14.3.8.9 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds;592
20.4;14.4 Neat Cutting Fluids;593
20.4.1;14.4.1 Classification of Neat Metalworking Oils According to Specifications;593
20.4.2;14.4.2 Composition of Neat Metalworking Fluids;593
20.4.2.1;14.4.2.1 Base Oils and Additives;593
20.4.2.2;14.4.2.2 Significance of Viscosity on the Selection of Neat Products;594
20.4.3;14.4.3 Oil Mist and Oil Evaporation Behaviour;595
20.4.3.1;14.4.3.1 Evaporation Behaviour;596
20.4.3.2;14.4.3.2 Low-Misting Oils;596
20.4.3.3;14.4.3.3 The Creation of Oil Mist;596
20.4.3.4;14.4.3.4 Sedimentation and Separation of Oil Mists;597
20.4.3.5;14.4.3.5 Toxicity of Oil Mist;598
20.4.3.6;14.4.3.6 Oil Mist Measurement;600
20.4.3.7;14.4.3.7 Oil Mist Index;601
20.4.3.8;14.4.3.8 Oil Mist Concentration in Practice;601
20.5;14.5 Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges;602
20.5.1;14.5.1 Turning;602
20.5.2;14.5.2 Drilling;605
20.5.3;14.5.3 Milling;605
20.5.4;14.5.4 Gear Cutting;606
20.5.5;14.5.5 Deep Hole Drilling;607
20.5.5.1;14.5.5.1 Deep Hole Drilling Methods;608
20.5.5.2;14.5.5.2 Tasks to be Fulfilled by the Cutting Fluid;609
20.5.6;14.5.6 Threading and Tapping;610
20.5.7;14.5.7 Broaching;611
20.6;14.6 Machining with Geometric Non-Defined Cutting Edges;612
20.6.1;14.6.1 Grinding;612
20.6.1.1;14.6.1.1 High-Speed Grinding;613
20.6.1.2;14.6.1.2 Grinding Wheel Abrasive Materials and Bondings;613
20.6.1.3;14.6.1.3 Requirements for Grinding Fluids;614
20.6.1.4;14.6.1.4 Special Workpiece Material Considerations;615
20.6.1.5;14.6.1.5 CBN High-Speed Grinding;615
20.6.1.6;14.6.1.6 Honing;616
20.6.1.7;14.6.1.7 Honing Oils;618
20.6.1.8;14.6.1.8 Lapping;619
20.6.1.9;14.6.1.9 Lapping Powder and Carrier Media;619
20.7;14.7 Specific Material Requirements for Machining Operations;620
20.7.1;14.7.1 Ferrous Metals;620
20.7.1.1;14.7.1.1 Steel;620
20.7.1.2;14.7.1.2 Tool Steels;620
20.7.1.3;14.7.1.3 High-Speed Steels (HSS);620
20.7.1.4;14.7.1.4 Stainless Steels;621
20.7.1.5;14.7.1.5 Cast Iron;621
20.7.2;14.7.2 Aluminium;621
20.7.2.1;14.7.2.1 Influence of the Type of Aluminium Alloy;621
20.7.2.2;14.7.2.2 The Behaviour of Aluminium During Machining;623
20.7.2.3;14.7.2.3 Tool Materials;625
20.7.3;14.7.3 Magnesium and its Alloys;625
20.7.4;14.7.4 Cobalt;627
20.7.4.1;14.7.4.1 The Health and Safety Aspects of Carbides;627
20.7.4.2;14.7.4.2 Use of Cutting Oils in Carbide Machining Processes;628
20.7.5;14.7.5 Titanium;628
20.7.6;14.7.6 Nickel and Nickel Alloys;629
20.8;14.8 Metalworking Fluid Circulation System;629
20.8.1;14.8.1 Metalworking Fluid Supply;630
20.8.1.1;14.8.1.1 Grinding;632
20.8.2;14.8.2 Individually-Filled Machines and Central Systems;633
20.8.3;14.8.3 Tramp Oil in Coolants;633
20.8.4;14.8.4 Separation of Solid Particles;635
20.8.4.1;14.8.4.1 Swarf Concentration and Filter Fineness;635
20.8.4.2;14.8.4.2 Full, Partial or Main Flow Solids Separation;636
20.8.4.3;14.8.4.3 Filtration Processes;636
20.8.4.4;14.8.4.4 Solids Separation Equipment;639
20.8.5;14.8.5 Plastics and Sealing Materials in Machine Tools - Compatibility with Cutting Fluids;646
20.8.6;14.8.6 Monitoring and Maintenance of Neat and Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids;647
20.8.6.1;14.8.6.1 Storage of Cutting Fluids;647
20.8.6.2;14.8.6.2 Mixing Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids;647
20.8.6.3;14.8.6.3 Monitoring Cutting Fluids;648
20.8.6.4;14.8.6.4 Cutting Fluid Maintenance;649
20.8.6.5;14.8.6.5 Corrective Maintenance for Neat and Water-miscible Cutting Fluids;651
20.8.7;14.8.7 Splitting and Disposal;653
20.8.7.1;14.8.7.1 Disposal of Cutting Fluids;653
20.8.7.2;14.8.7.2 Evaluation Criteria for Cutting Fluid Water Phases;654
20.8.7.3;14.8.7.3 Electrolyte Separation;655
20.8.7.4;14.8.7.4 Emulsion Separation by Flotation;657
20.8.7.5;14.8.7.5 Splitting of Emulsions with Adsorbents;657
20.8.7.6;14.8.7.6 Separating Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids by Thermal Methods;658
20.8.7.7;14.8.7.7 Ultrafiltration;658
20.8.7.8;14.8.7.8 Evaluation of Disposal Methods;660
20.9;14.9 Coolant Costs;661
20.9.1;14.9.1 Coolant Application Costs;661
20.9.1.1;14.9.1.1 Investment Costs (Depreciation, Financing Costs, Maintenance Costs);661
20.9.1.2;14.9.1.2 Energy Costs;661
20.9.1.3;14.9.1.3 Coolant and Coolant Additives;662
20.9.1.4;14.9.1.4 Coolant Monitoring;662
20.9.1.5;14.9.1.5 Other Auxiliaries;662
20.9.1.6;14.9.1.6 Coolant Separation and Disposal;662
20.9.2;14.9.2 Coolant Application Costs with Constant System;662
20.9.2.1;14.9.2.1 Specific Coolant Costs;662
20.9.2.2;14.9.2.2 Optimization of Coolant use by Computer;666
20.10;14.10 New Trends in Coolant Technology;667
20.10.1;14.10.1 Oil Instead of Emulsion;667
20.10.1.1;14.10.1.1 Fluid Families and Multifunctional Fluids for Machine Tools;669
20.10.1.2;14.10.1.2 Washing Lines;670
20.10.1.3;14.10.1.3 De-Oiling of Chips and Machined Components;670
20.10.1.4;14.10.1.4 Future Perspectives-Unifluid;670
20.10.2;14.10.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication;671
20.10.2.1;14.10.2.1 Considerations When Dispensing with Coolants;671
20.10.2.2;14.10.2.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication Systems;673
20.10.2.3;14.10.2.3 Coolants for Minimum Quantity Lubrication;674
20.10.2.4;14.10.2.4 Oil Mist Tests with Minimum Quantity Lubrication;676
20.10.2.5;14.10.2.5 Product Optimization of a Minimum Quantity Coolant Medium for Drilling;678
20.11;References;679
21;Chapter 15: Forming Lubricants;687
21.1;15.1 Sheet Metal Working Lubricants;687
21.1.1;15.1.1 Processes;688
21.1.2;15.1.2 Basic Terms in Forming Processes;688
21.1.2.1;15.1.2.1 Lattice Structure of Metals;688
21.1.2.2;15.1.2.2 Yield Strength;689
21.1.2.3;15.1.2.3 Strain;689
21.1.2.4;15.1.2.4 Flow Curve;689
21.1.2.5;15.1.2.5 Efficiency of Deformation, Resistance to Forming, Surface Pressure;691
21.1.2.6;15.1.2.6 Strain Rate;691
21.1.2.7;15.1.2.7 Anisotropy, Texture: R Value;692
21.1.3;15.1.3 Deep Drawing;692
21.1.3.1;15.1.3.1 Friction and Lubrication in the Different Areas of a Deep Drawing Operation;693
21.1.3.2;15.1.3.2 Significance of Lubrication Dependent upon Sheet Metal Thickness, Drawn-Part Size and the Efficiency of Deformation;696
21.1.3.3;15.1.3.3 Assessment of the Suitability of Lubricants for Deep Drawing;698
21.1.4;15.1.4 Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing;700
21.1.5;15.1.5 Shear Cutting;700
21.1.5.1;15.1.5.1 Stamping;702
21.1.5.2;15.1.5.2 Fineblanking;705
21.1.6;15.1.6 Material and Surface Microstructure;707
21.1.6.1;15.1.6.1 Material;707
21.1.7;15.1.7 Tools Used in Sheet Metal Forming Operations;709
21.1.8;15.1.8 Lubricants for Sheet Metal Forming;711
21.1.8.1;15.1.8.1 Application and Types of Lubricants;712
21.1.8.2;15.1.8.2 Lubricant Behaviour During Forming;716
21.1.8.3;15.1.8.3 Post-Processes;718
21.1.8.4;15.1.8.4 Trends in Sheet Metal Forming Lubrication;719
21.1.9;15.1.9 Special Case: Automobile Manufacturing;720
21.1.9.1;15.1.9.1 Prelubes;720
21.1.9.2;15.1.9.2 Skin Passing;721
21.1.9.3;15.1.9.3 Coil Oiling;721
21.1.9.4;15.1.9.4 Transport and Storage of Steel Coils or Blanks;722
21.1.9.5;15.1.9.5 Washing of Steel Strips and Blanks;722
21.1.9.6;15.1.9.6 Additional Lubrication;722
21.1.9.7;15.1.9.7 Pressing;723
21.1.9.8;15.1.9.8 Transport and Storage of Pressed Parts;723
21.1.9.9;15.1.9.9 Welding and Adhesive Bonding;724
21.1.9.10;15.1.9.10 Cleaning and Phosphating;725
21.1.9.11;15.1.9.11 Cataphoretic Painting;725
21.1.9.12;15.1.9.12 Savings Potential Using Prelubes;726
21.1.9.13;15.1.9.13 Dry-Film Lubricants;726
21.1.10;15.1.10 Special Case: Water-Based Synthetics;727
21.1.10.1;15.1.10.1 Introduction and Historical Background;727
21.1.10.2;15.1.10.2 Synthetic Lubricants Today;729
21.1.11;15.1.11 Testing Tribological Characteristics;730
21.1.11.1;15.1.11.1 General Considerations;730
21.1.11.2;15.1.11.2 Strip Drawing;731
21.1.11.3;15.1.11.3 Cup Drawing;733
21.1.12;15.1.12 Corrosion Protection;738
21.1.12.1;15.1.12.1 Corrosion Mechanisms;738
21.1.12.2;15.1.12.2 Temporary Corrosion Protection;739
21.1.12.3;15.1.12.3 Corrosion Tests;741
21.2;15.2 Lubricants for Wire, Tube and Profile Drawing;741
21.2.1;15.2.1 Friction and Lubrication, Tools and Machines;741
21.2.1.1;15.2.1.1 Forming Classification;741
21.2.1.2;15.2.1.2 Friction and Lubrication, Machines and Tools When Wire Drawing;742
21.2.1.3;15.2.1.3 Drawing Force and Tension;743
21.2.1.4;15.2.1.4 Drawing Tool and Wear;745
21.2.1.5;15.2.1.5 Wire Cracks;747
21.2.1.6;15.2.1.6 Hydrodynamic Drawing;747
21.2.1.7;15.2.1.7 Wire Friction on Cone;748
21.2.1.8;15.2.1.8 Lubricant Feed in Wet Drawing;751
21.2.1.9;15.2.1.9 Dry Drawing;751
21.2.1.10;15.2.1.10 Applying Lubricant as Pastes or High-Viscosity Products;752
21.2.2;15.2.2 Drawing Copper Wire;753
21.2.2.1;15.2.2.1 Lubricants;754
21.2.2.2;15.2.2.2 Lubricant Concentration;755
21.2.2.3;15.2.2.3 Solubility of Copper Reaction Products;756
21.2.2.4;15.2.2.4 Water Quality and Electrolyte Stability;756
21.2.2.5;15.2.2.5 Laboratory Testing Methods;756
21.2.2.6;15.2.2.6 Lubricant Temperature;757
21.2.2.7;15.2.2.7 Influence of the Lubricant on Wire Enamelling;757
21.2.2.8;15.2.2.8 Circulation Systems, Cleaning and Disposal of Drawing Emulsions;758
21.2.3;15.2.3 Drawing of Steel Wire;758
21.2.3.1;15.2.3.1 Requirements;758
21.2.3.2;15.2.3.2 Lubricant Carrier Layers;759
21.2.3.3;15.2.3.3 Lime as a Lubricant Carrier;760
21.2.3.4;15.2.3.4 Borax as Lubricant Carrier;760
21.2.3.5;15.2.3.5 Phosphate as Lubricant Carrier;760
21.2.3.6;15.2.3.6 Oxalate Coatings and Silicates;760
21.2.3.7;15.2.3.7 Lubricants for Steel Wire Drawing;761
21.2.4;15.2.4 Drawing Aluminium Wire;762
21.2.4.1;15.2.4.1 Drawing Machines and Lubrication;763
21.2.4.2;15.2.4.2 Lubricants for Aluminium Wire Drawing;763
21.2.5;15.2.5 Wire from Other Materials;764
21.2.5.1;15.2.5.1 Stainless Steel;764
21.2.5.2;15.2.5.2 Nickel;764
21.2.5.3;15.2.5.3 Tungsten;764
21.2.6;15.2.6 Profile Drawing;764
21.2.6.1;15.2.6.1 Lubricating Tasks in Profile Drawing;765
21.2.6.2;15.2.6.2 Pretreatment and the Use of Lubricant When Profile Drawing Steel;766
21.2.7;15.2.7 Tube Drawing;766
21.2.7.1;15.2.7.1 Tube-Drawing Methods;766
21.2.7.2;15.2.7.2 Tools and Tool Coatings;768
21.2.7.3;15.2.7.3 Lubricants and Surface Pretreatment for Tube Drawing;769
21.2.8;15.2.8 Hydroforming;771
21.2.8.1;15.2.8.1 Process Principle;773
21.2.8.2;15.2.8.2 Process Configuration;773
21.2.8.3;15.2.8.3 Tribological Aspects of Hydroforming;775
21.2.8.4;15.2.8.4 Lubricants for Hydroforming;775
21.3;15.3 Lubricants for Rolling;776
21.3.1;15.3.1 General;776
21.3.1.1;15.3.1.1 Rolling Speed;777
21.3.1.2;15.3.1.2 Rationalization;778
21.3.1.3;15.3.1.3 Surface and Material Quality;778
21.3.1.4;15.3.1.4 Hygienic Commercial Requirements;778
21.3.2;15.3.2 Friction and Lubrication When Rolling;778
21.3.3;15.3.3 Rolling Steel Sheet;783
21.3.3.1;15.3.3.1 Hot Rolling;783
21.3.3.2;15.3.3.2 Sheet Cold Rolling;784
21.3.3.3;15.3.3.3 Finest Sheet Cold Rolling;788
21.3.3.4;15.3.3.4 Cold Rolling of High Alloy Steel Sheet;789
21.3.4;15.3.4 Rolling Aluminium Sheet;790
21.3.5;15.3.5 Aluminium Hot Rolling;792
21.3.6;15.3.6 Aluminium Cold Rolling;793
21.3.7;15.3.7 Rolling Other Materials;794
21.4;15.4 Solid Metal Forming Lubricants: Solid Forming, Forging and Extrusion;795
21.4.1;15.4.1 Processes;795
21.4.1.1;15.4.1.1 Upsetting;795
21.4.1.2;15.4.1.2 Extrusion;795
21.4.1.3;15.4.1.3 Impression Die Forging;796
21.4.1.4;15.4.1.4 Open Die Forging;796
21.4.2;15.4.2 Forming Temperatures;796
21.4.2.1;15.4.2.1 Cold;797
21.4.2.2;15.4.2.2 Warm;797
21.4.2.3;15.4.2.3 Hot;797
21.4.3;15.4.3 Friction and Lubrication with Cold Extrusion and Cold Forging;797
21.4.3.1;15.4.3.1 Friction and Lubricant Testing Methods;798
21.4.3.2;15.4.3.2 Selection Criteria for Lubricants and Lubrication Technology;800
21.4.3.3;15.4.3.3 Lubricating Oils for Cold Extrusion of Steel: Extrusion Oils;801
21.4.3.4;15.4.3.4 Phosphate Coatings and Soap Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel;803
21.4.3.5;15.4.3.5 Solid Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel;806
21.4.4;15.4.4 Warm Extrusion and Forging;808
21.4.4.1;15.4.4.1 Temperature Range Up to 350 °C;810
21.4.4.2;15.4.4.2 Temperature Range 350-500 °C;811
21.4.4.3;15.4.4.3 Temperature Range 500-600 °C;811
21.4.4.4;15.4.4.4 Temperature Range >600 °C;811
21.4.5;15.4.5 Lubrication When Hot Forging;811
21.4.5.1;15.4.5.1 Demands on Hot Forging Lubricants;812
21.4.5.2;15.4.5.2 Lubricant Testing Methods;814
21.4.6;15.4.6 Hot Forging of Steel;814
21.4.6.1;15.4.6.1 Lubricants;815
21.4.7;15.4.7 Aluminium Forging;817
21.4.8;15.4.8 Isothermal and Hot Die Forging;817
21.4.9;15.4.9 Application and Selection of Lubricant;818
21.5;References;821
22;Chapter 16: Lubricating Greases;829
22.1;16.1 Introduction;829
22.1.1;16.1.1 Definition;829
22.1.2;16.1.2 History;830
22.1.3;16.1.3 Advantages over Lubricating Oils;830
22.1.4;16.1.4 Disadvantages;831
22.1.5;16.1.5 Classification;831
22.2;16.2 Thickeners;832
22.2.1;16.2.1 Simple Soaps;833
22.2.1.1;16.2.1.1 Soap Anions;833
22.2.1.2;16.2.1.2 Soap Cations;833
22.2.1.3;16.2.1.3 Lithium Soaps;833
22.2.1.4;16.2.1.4 Calcium Soaps;834
22.2.1.5;16.2.1.5 Sodium Soaps;835
22.2.1.6;16.2.1.6 Other Soaps;835
22.2.1.7;16.2.1.7 Cation Mixed Soaps M1X/M2X;836
22.2.1.8;16.2.1.8 Anion Mixed Soaps MX1/MX2;837
22.2.2;16.2.2 Complex Soaps;837
22.2.2.1;16.2.2.1 Lithium Complex Soaps;837
22.2.2.2;16.2.2.2 Calcium Complex Soaps;839
22.2.2.3;16.2.2.3 Calcium Sulfonate Complex Soaps;840
22.2.2.4;16.2.2.4 Aluminium Complex Soaps;840
22.2.2.5;16.2.2.5 Other Complex Soaps;841
22.2.3;16.2.3 Other Ionic Organic Thickeners;841
22.2.4;16.2.4 Non-Ionic Organic Thickeners;841
22.2.4.1;16.2.4.1 Diureas and Tetraureas;842
22.2.4.2;16.2.4.2 Other Non-Ionic Organic Thickeners;843
22.2.5;16.2.5 Inorganic Thickeners;843
22.2.5.1;16.2.5.1 Clays;843
22.2.5.2;16.2.5.2 Highly Dispersed Silicic Acid;844
22.2.6;16.2.6 Miscellaneous Thickeners;844
22.2.7;16.2.7 Temporarily Thickened Fluids;844
22.3;16.3 Base Oils;845
22.3.1;16.3.1 Mineral Oils;846
22.3.2;16.3.2 Synthetic Base Oils;846
22.3.2.1;16.3.2.1 Synthetic Hydrocarbons;846
22.3.2.2;16.3.2.2 Other Synthetic Base Oils;847
22.3.2.3;16.3.2.3 Immiscible Base Oil Mixtures;847
22.4;16.4 Grease Structure;847
22.5;16.5 Additives;848
22.5.1;16.5.1 Structure Modifiers;849
22.5.2;16.5.2 Antirust Additives (Corrosion Inhibitors);849
22.5.3;16.5.3 Extreme-Pressure and Anti-Wear Additives;849
22.5.4;16.5.4 Solid Lubricants;850
22.5.5;16.5.5 Friction Modifiers;850
22.5.6;16.5.6 Nanomaterials;851
22.6;16.6 Manufacture of Greases;851
22.6.1;16.6.1 Metal Soap-Based Greases;852
22.6.1.1;16.6.1.1 Batch Production with Preformed Metal Soaps;852
22.6.1.2;16.6.1.2 Batch Production with Metal Soaps Prepared In Situ;852
22.6.1.3;16.6.1.3 Continuous Production;854
22.6.2;16.6.2 Oligourea Greases;854
22.6.3;16.6.3 Gel Greases;855
22.7;16.7 Grease Rheology;855
22.8;16.8 Grease Performance;856
22.8.1;16.8.1 Test Methods;858
22.8.2;16.8.2 Analytical Methods;860
22.9;16.9 Applications of Greases;860
22.9.1;16.9.1 Rolling Bearings;861
22.9.1.1;16.9.1.1 Re-Lubrication Intervals;862
22.9.2;16.9.2 Cars, Trucks and Construction Vehicles;863
22.9.3;16.9.3 Steel Mills;867
22.9.4;16.9.4 Mining;868
22.9.5;16.9.5 Railroad, Railway;868
22.9.6;16.9.6 Gears;869
22.9.7;16.9.7 Food-Grade Applications;869
22.9.8;16.9.8 Textile Machines;870
22.9.9;16.9.9 Application Techniques;870
22.9.10;16.9.10 Special and Lifetime Applications;870
22.9.11;16.9.11 Applications with Polymeric Materials;871
22.10;16.10 Grease Market;872
22.11;16.11 Ecology and the Environment;873
22.12;16.12 Grease Tribology;875
22.13;References;875
23;Chapter 17: Solid Lubrication;891
23.1;17.1 Classification of Solid Lubricants;893
23.1.1;17.1.1 Class 1: Structural Lubricants;894
23.1.2;17.1.2 Class 2: Mechanical Lubricants;895
23.1.2.1;17.1.2.1 Self-Lubricating Substances;895
23.1.2.2;17.1.2.2 Substances with Lubricating Properties That Need a Supporting Medium;898
23.1.2.3;17.1.2.3 Substances with Indirect Lubricating Properties Based on Their Hardness (Physical Vapour Deposition, Chemical Vapour Deposition and Diamond-Like Carbon Layers);899
23.1.3;17.1.3 Class 3: Soaps;900
23.1.4;17.1.4 Class 4: Chemically Active Substances;900
23.2;17.2 Characteristics;900
23.2.1;17.2.1 The Crystal Structures of Lamellar Solid Lubricants;901
23.2.1.1;17.2.1.1 Graphite - C;901
23.2.1.2;17.2.1.2 Molybdenum Disulfide;903
23.2.1.3;17.2.1.3 Tungsten(IV) Sulfide;904
23.2.1.4;17.2.1.4 Boron Nitride;904
23.2.2;17.2.2 Heat Stability of Lamellar Solid Lubricants;905
23.2.3;17.2.3 Melting Point;906
23.2.4;17.2.4 Thermal Conductivity;906
23.2.5;17.2.5 Adsorbed Films;906
23.2.6;17.2.6 Mechanical Properties;907
23.2.7;17.2.7 Chemical Stability;907
23.2.8;17.2.8 Purity;907
23.2.9;17.2.9 Particle Size;908
23.3;17.3 Products Containing Solid Lubricants;908
23.3.1;17.3.1 Powders;908
23.3.1.1;17.3.1.1 Solid Lubricants in Carrying Media;909
23.3.2;17.3.2 Dispersions and Suspensions;910
23.3.3;17.3.3 Greases and Grease Pastes;911
23.3.4;17.3.4 Pastes;912
23.3.5;17.3.5 Bonded Solid Lubricants or Dry-Film Lubricants;913
23.4;17.4 Industrial Uses of Products Containing Solid Lubricants;919
23.4.1;17.4.1 Screw Lubrication;920
23.4.2;17.4.2 Roller-Bearing Lubrication;922
23.4.3;17.4.3 Slide Bearing, Slide Guideway and Slide Surface Lubrication;923
23.4.4;17.4.4 Chain Lubrication;924
23.4.5;17.4.5 Plastic and Elastomer Lubrication;924
23.5;Further Reading [1--50];925
23.6;Journals;925
23.7;Standards, Reprints;927
23.8;Books;927
24;Chapter 18: Laboratory Methods for Testing Lubricants;929
24.1;18.1 Introduction;929
24.2;18.2 Density;929
24.3;18.3 Viscosity;930
24.3.1;18.3.1 Capillary Viscometers;930
24.3.2;18.3.2 Rotary Viscometers;930
24.4;18.4 Refractive Index;931
24.5;18.5 Structural Analyses;931
24.6;18.6 Flash Point;932
24.7;18.7 Surface Phenomena;932
24.7.1;18.7.1 Air Release;932
24.7.2;18.7.2 Water Separation and Demulsibility;932
24.7.3;18.7.3 Foaming Characteristics;933
24.8;18.8 Cloud Point, Pour Point;933
24.9;18.9 Aniline Point;933
24.10;18.10 Water Content;934
24.11;18.11 Ash Content;934
24.12;18.12 Acidity, Alkalinity;934
24.13;18.13 Ageing Tests;935
24.14;18.14 Hydrolytic Stability;936
24.15;18.15 Corrosion Tests;936
24.16;18.16 Oil Compatibility of Seals and Insulating Materials;937
24.17;18.17 Evaporation Loss;937
24.18;18.18 Analysis and Testing of Lubricating Greases;938
24.18.1;18.18.1 Consistency;938
24.18.2;18.18.2 Dropping Point;938
24.18.3;18.18.3 Oil Separation;938
24.18.4;18.18.4 Shear Stability of Greases;939
24.18.4.1;18.18.4.1 Prolonged Grease Working;939
24.18.4.2;18.18.4.2 Roll Stability of Lubricating Greases;939
24.18.5;18.18.5 High-temperature Performance;939
24.18.6;18.18.6 Wheel Bearing Leakage;939
24.18.6.1;18.18.6.1 Leakage Tendency of Automotive Wheel Bearing Greases;939
24.18.6.2;18.18.6.2 Wheel Bearing Leakage Under Accelerated Conditions;940
24.18.7;18.18.7 Wheel Bearing Life;940
24.18.8;18.18.8 Water Resistance;940
24.18.8.1;18.18.8.1 Water Washout Characteristics;940
24.18.8.2;18.18.8.2 Water Spray-Off Resistance;940
24.18.9;18.18.9 Oxidation Stability of Lubricating Greases by the Oxygen Pressure-Vessel Method;941
24.18.10;18.18.10 Corrosion-preventive Characteristics;941
24.18.10.1;18.18.10.1 Rust Test;941
24.18.10.2;18.18.10.2 EMCOR Test;941
24.18.10.3;18.18.10.3 Copper Corrosion;942
24.19;18.19 Elemental Analyses by Spectroscopic Methods;942
24.19.1;18.19.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy - AAS;942
24.19.2;18.19.2 Atom Emission Spectroscopy (AES) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES);943
24.19.3;18.19.3 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF);943
24.19.4;18.19.4 Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (WDXRF);943
24.20;18.20 List of Equivalent Standardized Methods for Testing Lubricants;944
24.21;References;949
25;Chapter 19: Mechanical-Dynamic Test Methods and Tribology;951
25.1;19.1 Tribological System Categories within Mechanical-Dynamic Tests;954
25.2;19.2 Simple Tribological Mechanical-Dynamic Test Machines and Test Methods;955
25.2.1;19.2.1 Four-Ball Apparatus;955
25.2.2;19.2.2 Brugger Apparatus and Reichert's Friction-Wear Balance;957
25.2.3;19.2.3 Falex Test Machines;958
25.2.3.1;19.2.3.1 Falex Block-on-ring Test Machine;958
25.2.3.2;19.2.3.2 Falex Pin and Vee Block Test Machine;959
25.2.3.3;19.2.3.3 Falex High-Performance Multispecimen Test Machine;959
25.2.3.4;19.2.3.4 Falex Tapping Torque Test Machine;961
25.2.4;19.2.4 Timken Test Machine;961
25.2.5;19.2.5 High-Frequency Reciprocating Test Machines;962
25.2.5.1;19.2.5.1 High-Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR);962
25.2.5.2;19.2.5.2 High-Frequency, Linear-Oscillation Test Machine (SRV);963
25.2.6;19.2.6 Mini Traction Machine (MTM);965
25.2.7;19.2.7 Low-Velocity Friction Apparatus (LVFA): The Tribometer;967
25.2.8;19.2.8 Diesel Injector Apparatus;967
25.2.9;19.2.9 Further Standardized and Non-Standardized Test Machines and Test Methods;967
25.3;19.3 Mechanical-Dynamic Tests for Gearbox and Transmission Application;968
25.3.1;19.3.1 Variety of Gear and Transmission Types;968
25.3.2;19.3.2 Gears and Roller Bearings;970
25.3.2.1;19.3.2.1 Gears;970
25.3.2.2;19.3.2.2 Roller Bearings;972
25.3.3;19.3.3 Gear and Roller Bearing Tribo-Performance Test Rigs;973
25.3.3.1;19.3.3.1 Older Test Rigs Used for Gear and Axle Application;973
25.3.3.2;19.3.3.2 FZG Gear-Test Rig;975
25.3.3.3;19.3.3.3 The Micro-Pitting Rig (MPR);976
25.3.3.4;19.3.3.4 The High-Temperature Bearing Tester (HTHT);977
25.3.3.5;19.3.3.5 The Roller Bearing Test Apparatus (FE8);978
25.3.3.6;19.3.3.6 The Roller Bearing Test Apparatus (FE9);979
25.3.4;19.3.4 Types of Tooth Flank and Roller Bearing Damage;981
25.3.4.1;19.3.4.1 Wear and Wear Performance Tests;982
25.3.4.2;19.3.4.2 Scuffing/Scoring and Performance Tests;984
25.3.4.3;19.3.4.3 Surface Fatigue/Micro-Pitting and Performance Tests;987
25.3.4.4;19.3.4.4 Sub-Surface Fatigue/Pitting and Performance Tests;989
25.3.4.5;19.3.4.5 Tooth Fracture;992
25.3.5;19.3.5 Gear Efficiency and Fuel Economy;992
25.3.6;19.3.6 Transmission Trends with Regard to Tribology and Oil Ageing;993
25.3.7;19.3.7 Synchronizer Applications and Performance Tests;996
25.3.7.1;19.3.7.1 Area of Application;996
25.3.7.2;19.3.7.2 Function and Tribology of the Synchronizer;996
25.3.7.3;19.3.7.3 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods;1000
25.3.8;19.3.8 Wet Clutch/Break Applications and Performance Tests;1004
25.3.8.1;19.3.8.1 Area of Application;1004
25.3.8.2;19.3.8.2 Function and Tribology of the Friction Disks;1004
25.3.8.3;19.3.8.3 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods;1005
25.3.9;19.3.9 Variator Applications and Performance Tests;1011
25.3.9.1;19.3.9.1 Area of Application;1011
25.3.9.2;19.3.9.2 Function and Tribology of Chain, Push Belt and Fluid;1012
25.3.9.3;19.3.9.3 Standardized Test Rigs and Test Methods;1013
25.4;19.4 Mechanical-Dynamic Tests for Internal Combustion Engines;1016
25.4.1;19.4.1 Variety of Internal Combustion Engines;1016
25.4.2;19.4.2 Area of Application and Operation of Two-Stroke Engines;1017
25.4.3;19.4.3 Mechanical-Dynamic Tests for Two-Stroke Engines;1019
25.4.4;19.4.4 Area of Application and Operation of Four-Stroke Engines;1021
25.4.5;19.4.5 Mechanical-Dynamic Tests for Four-Stroke Engines;1023
25.4.5.1;19.4.5.1 Piston;1025
25.4.5.2;19.4.5.2 Piston Pin to Piston Contact;1026
25.4.5.3;19.4.5.3 Piston Skirt to Cylinder Block;1027
25.4.5.4;19.4.5.4 Piston Rings to Cylinder Block;1029
25.4.5.5;19.4.5.5 Crankshaft and Crankshaft Bearings;1030
25.4.5.6;19.4.5.6 Camshaft to Cam Follower, Valves, Valve Mechanisms and Valve Train;1032
25.4.5.7;19.4.5.7 Gear Trains: Timing Gear Chain and Timing Belt;1035
25.4.5.8;19.4.5.8 Fuel Supply System;1035
25.4.5.9;19.4.5.9 Oil Pump;1037
25.4.5.10;19.4.5.10 Oil Filter;1038
25.4.5.11;19.4.5.11 Single- and Dual-Mass Flywheel Systems;1038
25.4.5.12;19.4.5.12 Auxiliary Assemblies;1040
25.4.5.13;19.4.5.13 Engine Testing;1040
25.4.6;19.4.6 Rotary Engines;1044
25.4.6.1;19.4.6.1 Application and Operation of Rotary Engines;1044
25.4.6.2;19.4.6.2 Tribology of Rotary Engines;1046
25.4.7;19.4.7 Gas Turbines: High-Power Engines;1048
25.4.7.1;19.4.7.1 Area of Application and Operation of Gas Turbines;1048
25.4.7.2;19.4.7.2 Gas Turbine Engines;1051
25.4.8;19.4.8 Future Trends;1053
25.4.8.1;19.4.8.1 Fuel Economy;1053
25.4.8.2;19.4.8.2 Extended Drain and Biofuel Compatibility;1054
25.4.8.3;19.4.8.3 Emissions;1056
25.4.8.4;19.4.8.4 Weight Reduction;1056
25.5;19.5 Hydraulic Pump and Circuit Design;1057
25.5.1;19.5.1 Hydraulic Fundamentals;1057
25.5.2;19.5.2 Area of Hydraulic Application and Operation;1058
25.5.3;19.5.3 Hydraulic System Components and Loop Circuits;1059
25.5.4;19.5.4 Tribology of Hydraulic Pumps and Performance Tests;1060
25.5.4.1;19.5.4.1 Gear Pumps;1062
25.5.4.2;19.5.4.2 Vane Pumps;1063
25.5.4.3;19.5.4.3 Piston Pumps;1066
25.5.4.4;19.5.4.4 Hybrid Pumps;1068
25.5.5;19.5.5 Valves;1070
25.5.6;19.5.6 Seals, Gaskets and Elastomers;1071
25.5.7;19.5.7 Fuel Efficiency and Emissions Reductions;1074
25.5.7.1;19.5.7.1 Trends and Key Factors;1074
25.5.7.2;19.5.7.2 The Role of Hydraulic Fluids for Energy Efficiency;1074
25.5.7.3;19.5.7.3 Hydraulic Pump Efficiency Test Rigs and Test Methods;1075
25.5.7.4;19.5.7.4 Test Results of Pump Efficiency Tests and Field Test Verification;1079
25.6;19.6 Interpretation and Precision of Tribological Mechanical-Dynamic Testing;1089
25.7;Acknowledgements;1089
25.8;References;1089
26;Chapter 20: Lubrication Systems;1101
26.1;20.1 Introduction;1101
26.2;20.2 The Taxonomy of Centralized Lubrication Systems DIN 24271 Part 1 and DIN ISO 5170;1102
26.3;20.3 Total-Loss Lubrication Systems;1103
26.3.1;20.3.1.1 Structure of Centralized Lubrication Systems;1103
26.3.2;20.3.2 Single-line System;1103
26.3.2.1;20.3.2.1 System Description;1103
26.3.2.2;20.3.2.2 Applications;1104
26.3.2.3;20.3.2.3 Single-Line System with Piston Distributors;1105
26.3.3;20.3.3 Dual-Line System;1105
26.3.3.1;20.3.3.1 System Description;1106
26.3.3.2;20.3.3.2 Applications;1107
26.3.4;20.3.4 Oil?+?Air System;1107
26.3.4.1;20.3.4.1 Applications;1108
26.3.5;20.3.5 Oil-Mist System;1108
26.3.5.1;20.3.5.1 System Description;1108
26.3.5.2;20.3.5.2 Applications;1109
26.4;20.4 Circulating Lubrication Systems;1109
26.4.1;20.4.1 General Remarks;1109
26.4.2;20.4.2 Circulating Lubrication Systems with Orifice Tubes;1110
26.4.2.1;20.4.2.1 General Remarks;1110
26.4.3;20.4.3 Symmetric Systems;1111
26.4.4;20.4.4 Circulating Lubrication Systems with Multicircuit Pumps;1112
26.4.4.1;20.4.4.1 General Remarks;1112
26.4.4.2;20.4.4.2 Structure of a System;1113
26.5;20.5 Special Applications;1113
26.5.1;20.5.1 Vehicle Lubrication;1113
26.5.1.1;20.5.1.1 General Remarks;1113
26.5.1.2;20.5.1.2 Lubricants in the Vehicle Sector;1114
26.5.2;20.5.2 Wheel Flange Lubrication for Rail Vehicles;1117
26.5.2.1;20.5.2.1 General Remarks;1117
26.5.2.2;20.5.2.2 Types of Systems;1119
26.5.2.3;20.5.2.3 Systems;1120
26.5.3;20.5.3 System Example, System 2 - Metering by Piston with Ring Groove;1120
26.5.3.1;20.5.3.1 Wheel Flange Lubrication System for One Direction of Travel and Curve-Dependent Lubrication;1120
26.5.4;20.5.4 Chain Lubrication;1122
26.5.4.1;20.5.4.1 General Remarks;1122
26.5.4.2;20.5.4.2 Chain Friction Points;1124
26.5.4.3;20.5.4.3 Lubrication Systems;1125
26.5.4.4;20.5.4.4 Lubrication Systems for Oil;1125
26.5.4.5;20.5.4.5 Lubrication Systems for Grease;1125
26.5.5;20.5.5 Minimal Quantity Lubrication (MQL);1125
26.5.5.1;20.5.5.1 General Remarks;1125
26.5.5.2;20.5.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of (Cooling) Lubrication Systems;1127
26.5.5.3;20.5.5.3 Equipment and Systems;1127
26.5.6;20.5.6 Hydrostatic Lubrication;1129
26.5.6.1;20.5.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages;1130
26.5.6.2;20.5.6.2 Application;1130
26.5.6.3;20.5.6.3 Supply Systems;1131
26.5.7;20.5.7 Wind Energy Systems;1132
26.5.7.1;20.5.7.1 Lube Points;1132
26.5.7.2;20.5.7.2 Centralized Lubrication System;1132
26.5.8;20.5.8 Large Diesel Engines;1132
26.5.8.1;20.5.8.1 General Remarks;1132
26.6;Reference;1136
27;Chapter 21: Removal of Lubricants: Industrial Cleaners;1137
27.1;21.1 Introduction to Industrial Cleaning;1137
27.2;21.2 Substrates (Workpieces);1138
27.3;21.3 Contamination: Soil;1139
27.3.1;21.3.1 Oils and Emulsions;1139
27.3.2;21.3.2 Greases, Pastes and Compounds;1140
27.3.3;21.3.3 Inorganic Particles and Salts;1140
27.4;21.4 Mechanisms of Aqueous Cleaning;1141
27.5;21.5 Detection and Control of Cleaning Result;1143
27.5.1;21.5.1 Water Break Test;1144
27.5.2;21.5.2 Determination of Surface Carbon;1145
27.5.3;21.5.3 Copper Cementation;1145
27.5.4;21.5.4 IR Oil Film Analyser;1145
27.5.5;21.5.5 UV Fluorescence Analyser;1145
27.5.6;21.5.6 Surface Tension Inks;1146
27.6;21.6 Cleaning Methods and Equipment;1146
27.6.1;21.6.1 Avoiding of Cleaning;1147
27.6.2;21.6.2 Pickling and Precleaning;1148
27.6.3;21.6.3 Aqueous Immersion Cleaning;1148
27.6.4;21.6.4 Emulsion Cleaners;1149
27.6.5;21.6.5 Aqueous Spray Cleaning;1150
27.6.6;21.6.6 Manual Part Washing;1151
27.6.7;21.6.7 Ultrasound Cleaning;1152
27.6.8;21.6.8 Electrolytic Cleaning;1153
27.6.9;21.6.9 Solvent Cleaning and Vacuum Systems;1153
27.6.10;21.6.10 Solvent Vapour Cleaning;1154
27.6.11;21.6.11 Cleaning after Heat Treatment;1154
27.6.12;21.6.12 Rinsing, Passivation and Corrosion Protection;1154
27.6.13;21.6.13 Comparison of Cleaning Methods;1155
27.7;21.7 Aqueous Cleaners;1156
27.7.1;21.7.1 Builders;1158
27.7.2;21.7.2 Surfactants;1158
27.7.2.1;21.7.2.1 Non-ionic Surfactants;1159
27.7.2.2;21.7.2.2 Cationic Surfactants;1161
27.7.2.3;21.7.2.3 Anionic Surfactants;1161
27.7.3;21.7.3 Sequestrants and Inhibitors;1162
27.7.4;21.7.4 Water;1163
27.7.5;21.7.5 Emulsion Cleaners;1163
27.8;21.8 Solvent Cleaners;1163
27.8.1;21.8.1 Hydrocarbon Solvents;1164
27.8.2;21.8.2 Halogenated Solvents;1165
27.8.3;21.8.3 Other Solvent Cleaners;1166
27.9;21.9 Maintenance of Cleaner Systems;1167
27.9.1;21.9.1 Gravity Separators;1168
27.9.2;21.9.2 Dimensional Separators;1168
27.9.3;21.9.3 Other Separators;1169
27.9.4;21.9.4 Replenishment of Chemicals;1170
27.10;References;1170
28;Index;1173
29;EULA;1219mehr

Autor

Theo Mang recently retired from his long term position at Fuchs, Germany, and is still active in the field. He obtained his diploma for mining engineering and his PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Clausthal, Germany. In 1967 he joined Fuchs in Mannheim, Germany, becoming head of the technical department in 1980 and a member of the Executive Board of the global Fuchs Group from 1983 until 2001. Professor Mang is recipient of the Georg Vogelpohl Medal, highest award of the German Society of Tribology. Furthermore, he authored more than 80 scientific publications on the topic of lubrication. In 2013, he was honored with the Federal Cross of Merit by the German Federal President Joachim Gauck for the successful research and development, his cultural activities and generally for his lifework.

Wilfried Dresel is responsible for the development of lubricating greases at Fuchs, Germany. He received his diploma in chemistry 1972 at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany, and was awarded his doctorate 1976 in carbosilane chemistry. His industrial career began 1977 in the field of preparative organic and pharmaceutical chemistry. From 1979 to 1983 he worked for a small company on lubricants for fine mechanical instruments and then went on to join Fuchs. Professor Dresel has authored 35 scientific papers and a number of contributions to books.
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